You-and-Me and Me-and-You forms (Local forms)
Markers (theme signs) indicate who are the participants in the discourse, (ii) for you-and-me forms and (un) for the me-and-you forms followed by an ‘n ending‘. The extra object of the ditransitive verb may be either animate or inanimate. When it is animate, it is never obviative because there is never more than one 3rd person participant in these constructs.
One may optionally use the plural verb ending (-ak) when the extra object is animate and plural.
You-Me Template
(ku)-(vtao stem)-(ii)-(n ending)
You - me - singular extra object animate or inanimate
(ku)-(vtao stem)-(ii)-(n ending)-(ak)
You - me - plural animate extra object
(ku)-(vtao stem)-(ii)-(n ending)-(an*)
You - me - plural inanimate extra object
Me-You Template
(ku)-(vtao stem)-(un)-(n ending)
Me - you - singular extra object animate or inanimate(ku)-(vtao stem)-(un)-(n ending)-(an*)
Me - you - plural inanimate extra object
(ku)-(vtao stem)-(un)-(n ending)-(ak)
Me - you - plural animate extra object VTAO You-and-Me
VTAO Indicative Local You-and-Me Forms
| Subj – Obj 1 – Obj 2 | Paradigm | Alternative |
|---|---|---|
| You —> me – it | ku-(stem)-iin | — |
| You —> me – him or her | ku-(stem)-iin | — |
| You —> me – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-iin | ku-(stem)-iinah |
| You —> me – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-iin | ku-(stem)-iinak |
| You (pl) —> me – it | ku-(stem)-iinaawah | — |
| You (pl) —> me – him or her | ku-(stem)-iinaawah | — |
| You (pl) —> me – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-iinaawah | ku-(stem)-iinaawąąn |
| You (pl) —> me – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-iinaawah | ku-(stem)-iinaawąąk |
| You (pl) or you —> us – it | ku-(stem)-iinaanah | — |
| You (pl) or you —> us – him or her | ku-(stem)-iinaanah | — |
| You (pl) or you —> us – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-iinaanah | ku-(stem)-iinaanąąn |
| You (pl) or you —> us – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-iinaanah | ku-(stem)-iinaanąąk |
You-and-Me examples with an inanimate extra object
Kumiiniin kaakway.
You gave me something.
Kumiiniinaawah kaakway.
You (pl) gave me something.
Kumiiniinaanah kaakway..
You gave us something.
Kumiiniin ąąθoon.
You gave me the hat.
ktunumawiin ąąθoon.
You handed me the hat.
ktunumawiin ąąθoonan.
You handed me the hats. (plural extra object without plural ending)
ktunumawiinah ąąθoonan.
You handed me the hats. (with inanimate plural ending)
Ktunumawiinah.
You handed them (inanimate) to me. (with inanimate plural ending)
You-and-Me examples with singular animate extra object
Ktunumawiin hooθ.
You handed me a kettle.
Kumiinaanah ktakwxoom.
You (pl) or you gave us your bread.You-and-Me examples with a plural animate extra object
Ktunumawiin hooθak.
You handed me kettles.
Ktunumawiinak hooθak.
You handed me kettles. (with plural ending on the verb)
Kumiinaawah hooθak.
You (pl) gave me the kettles.
Kumiinaawąąk hooθak.
You (pl) gave me the kettles. (with plural ending on the verb)
Kumiiniinaanah hooθak.
You (pl) or you gave us the kettles.
Kumiiníinak.
You gave them (anim.) to me.
Me-and-You examples
These follow the same patterns as the you-and-me forms
VTAO Indicative Local Me-and-You Forms
| Subj – Obj 1 – Obj 2 | Paradigm | Alternative |
|---|---|---|
| I —> you – it | ku-(stem)-unun | — |
| I —> you – him or her | ku-(stem)-unun | — |
| I —> you – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-unun | ku-(stem)-ununah |
| I —> you – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-unun | ku-(stem)-ununak |
| I —> you (pl)- it | ku-(stem)-ununaawah | — |
| I —> you (pl) – him or her | ku-(stem)-ununaawah | — |
| I —> you (pl) – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-ununaawah | ku-(stem)-ununaawąąn |
| I —> you (pl) – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-ununaawah | ku-(stem)-ununaawąąk |
| We —> you or you (pl) – it | ku-(stem)-ununaanah | — |
| We —> you or you (pl) – him or her | ku-(stem)-ununaanah | — |
| We —> you or you (pl) – them (inanimate) | ku-(stem)-ununaanah | ku-(stem)-ununaanąąn |
| We —> you or you (pl) – them (animate) | ku-(stem)-ununaanah | ku-(stem)-ununaanąąk |
Examples:
Kumiinununak.
I gave them (animate) to you.
Ktunumaaun.
I handed it, them to you.
(ku)(anumaw)(un)(un)
Kumiinununak hooθak.
I gave you the kettles.
Kumiinunun kaakway.
I gave you something.
Kumiilulunéewa kwéekwiil.
I gave ye some things.
Kumiinunúnaanah wuyaaθ.
We gave you, you (pl) meat.
VTA compared to VTAO
Kumíinih.
You gave to me.
(use as monotransitive VTA)
Kumíiniin.
You gave it to me.
(use as ditransitive or VTAO)VTAO Passives or Inverse Indefinite Subject forms
These forms are very useful, because the subject “he or she” is replaced by a subject of unspecified gender and number. This mystery subject could animate or inanimate, singular or plural. In English, forms with an unspecified subject are passive forms such that the main focus is shifted to the object. Several ways of translating these forms are possible.
I gave it to him. (specific subject)
Mystery Subject gave it to him. (unspecified subject)
He was given it. (passive translation)
It was given to him. There was giving of it to him. Given to him it was. (other translations)As was the case for the VTAs, the direction marker (ukaa) is used in non 3rd person forms. The 3rd person forms use the X subject form using the direct marker -ąą- without a (wu) prefix. Endings of these 3rd person forms will be shown in the tables below.
Mahican uses two sets of passives, one set with n endings which optionally add plural and obviative endings that reference the extra object. These forms are objective for the extra object, meaning they speak of a specific object, in a definite way. (He gave the bear the fish.)
Another set of passives are built using the m endings. This set uses endings that mark obviation or plurality of the primary object but do not change endings for the extra object. These forms are absolute for the extra object meaning they speak of an object in a general way or indefinite way. (He gave the bear a fish.)
Numiinkaan ąąθoon. Gave me the hat. I was given the hat. The hat was given to me. There was giving of the hat to me. To me, a gift, the hat. Regardless of how one translates the idea into English, the Mahican verb structure remains structurally the same as it is for non-passive forms and does not flip subjects and objects around around the way we do in English. The prefix or lack thereof tells us something about one of the verb participants. The verb stem tells us what type of action or interaction happens between the participants. The direction marker tells us how to interpret which of the participants is the subject or object of the verb action.
The endings tell us more about the participants.
Use of the Mahican verb structure to understand the meaning is especially important in the inverse forms including these indefinite inverse forms because the English translation will make it harder to sort out things like the obviative status of participants or identifying which noun goes with which participant of the verb.
The Mahican verb is structured in a way that the extra object always remains the secondary object in these double object verbs regardless of which direction marker is used.
Examples:
1st person absolute forms with inanimate extra object.
Numiinkah ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave me a hat. I was given a hat. (Me, give action, reversed, something unspecified)
Numiinkah ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave me some hats. I was given some hats. (Me, give action, reversed, something unspecified)1st person absolute forms with animate extra object.
Numiinkah tkwax. Mystery Subject gave me a loaf of bread.
Numiinkah tkwaxak. Mystery Subject gave me some loaves of bread. 1st person objective forms with inanimate extra object.
Numiinkaan ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave me the hat.
Numiinkaanah ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave me the hats. 1st person objective forms with animate extra object.
Numiinkaan tkwax. Mystery Subject gave me a loaf of bread.
Numiinkaanak tkwaxak. Mystery Subject gave me some loaves of bread. 3rd person absolute forms with inanimate extra object.
Miinąąw ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave him a hat.
Miinąąw ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave him some hats. 3rd person absolute forms with animate extra object.
Miinąąw tkwaxan. Mystery Subject gave him a loaf of bread.
Miinąąw tkwaxah. Mystery Subject gave him some loaves of bread. 3rd person objective forms with inanimate extra object.
Miinąąn. Mystery Subject gave it to him.
Miinąąn ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave him the hat.
Miinąąnah ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave him the hats. Miinąąnan tkwaxan. Mystery Subject gave him the loaf of bread.
Miinąąnah tkwaxah. Mystery Subject gave him the loaves of bread. 2nd person plural absolute forms with inanimate extra object.
Kumiinkahmah ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) a hat.
Kumiinkahmah ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) some hats. 2nd person plural absolute forms with animate extra object.
Kumiinkahmah tkwax. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) a loaf of bread.
Kumiinkahmah tkwaxak. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) some loaves of bread. 2nd person plural objective forms with inanimate extra object.
Kumiinkaanaawah. Mystery Subject gave it to you (pl).
Kumiinkaanaawah ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) the hat.
Kumiinkaanaawąąn ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) the hats. 2nd person plural objective forms with animate extra object.
Kumiinkaanaawah tkwax. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) the bread.
Kumiinkaanaawąąk tkwaxak. Mystery Subject gave you (pl) the loaves of bread. 3rd person plural absolute forms with inanimate extra object.
Miinąąk ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave them a hat.
Miinąąk ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave them some hats. 3rd person plural absolute forms with animate extra object.
Miinąąk tkwaxan. Mystery Subject gave them a loaf of bread.
Miinąąk tkwaxah. Mystery Subject gave them some loaves of bread. 3rd person plural objective forms with inanimate extra object.
Miinąąnaawah ąąθoon. Mystery Subject gave them the hat.
Miinąąnaawąąn ąąθoonan. Mystery Subject gave them the hats. 3rd person plural objective forms with animate extra object.
Miinąąnaawąąn tkwaxan. Mystery Subject gave them a loaf of bread.
Miinąąnaawąą tkwaxah. Mystery Subject gave them the loaves of bread. VTAO Objective Passives Inanimate Extra Object
| Meaning | Paradigm | Alternative (with plural suffix) |
|---|---|---|
| X — me – it | nu-(stem)-ukaan | |
| X — me – them | nu-(stem)-ukaan | nu-(stem)-ukaanan |
| X — you – it | ku-(stem)-ukaan | |
| X — you – them | ku-(stem)-ukaan | ku-(stem)-ukaanan |
| X — him – it | —(stem)-ąąn | |
| X — him – them | —(stem)-ąąn | —(stem)-ąąnan |
| X — us – it | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanah | |
| X — us – them | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanah | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanąąn |
| X — us – it | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanah | |
| X — us – them | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanah | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanąąn |
| X — you (pl) – it | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawah | |
| X — you (pl) – them | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawah | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawąąn |
| X — them – it | —(stem)-ąąnaawah | |
| X — them – them | —(stem)-ąąnaawah | —(stem)-ąąnaawąąn |
VTAO Objective Passives with Animate Extra Object
| Meaning | Paradigm | Alternative with plural or obviative suffix |
|---|---|---|
| X — me – him | nu-(stem)-ukaan | |
| X — me – them | nu-(stem)-ukaan | nu-(stem)-ukaanak |
| X — you – him | ku-(stem)-ukaan | |
| X — you – them | ku-(stem)-ukaan | ku-(stem)-ukaanak |
| X — him – him | —(stem)-ąąn | —(stem)-ąąnan |
| X — him – them | —(stem)-ąąn | —(stem)-ąąnah |
| X — us – him | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanah | |
| X — us – them | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanah | nu-(stem)-ukaanaanąąk |
| X — us – him | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanah | |
| X — us – them | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanah | ku-(stem)-ukaanaanąąk |
| X — you (pl) – him | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawah | |
| X — you (pl) – them | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawah | ku-(stem)-ukaanaawąąk |
| X — them – him | —(stem)-ąąnaawah | |
| X — them – them | —(stem)-ąąnaawah | —(stem)-ąąnaawąą |
VTAO Objective Passives Negative Forms
| Meaning | Paradigm |
|---|---|
| X — me – it not | ustah nu-(stem)-ukaawun |
| X — you – it not | ustah ku-(stem)-ukaawun |
| X — him – it not | ustah —(stem)-ąąwun |
| X — us – it not | ustah nu-(stem)-ukaawunaanah |
| X — us – it not | ustah ku-(stem)-ukaawunaanah |
| X — you (pl) – it not | ku-(stem)-ukaawunaawah |
| X — them – it not | —(stem)-ąąwunaawah |
VTAO Passive Absolute Forms
| Meaning | Paradigm |
|---|---|
| X — me – it not | nu-(stem)-ukah |
| X — you – it | ku-(stem)-ukah |
| X — him – it | —(stem)-ąąw |
| X — us – it | nu-(stem)-ukahnah |
| X — us – it | ku-(stem)-ukahnah |
| X — you (pl) – it | ku-(stem)-ukahmah |
| X — them – it | —(stem)-ąąk |
VTAO Absolute Passives Negative Forms
| Meaning | Paradigm |
|---|---|
| X — me – it not | ustah nu-(stem)-ukaaw |
| X — you – it not | ustah ku-(stem)-ukaaw |
| X — him – it not | ustah —(stem)-ąąwih |
| X — us – it not | ustah nu-(stem)-ukaawihnah |
| X — us – it not | ustah ku-(stem)-ukaawihnah |
| X — you (pl) – it not | ku-(stem)-ukaawihmah |
| X — them – it not | —(stem)-ąąwiik |
Passives using the Reciprocal suffix
Passives may be constructed using the reciprocal suffix (-tii) in which case both the subject and the direct object are suppressed.
Míintiin.
It is given.
(miin)-(tii)-(n ending)
Indefinite subject gives it to indefinite object.
míintuwąąkan ni gift (is derived from this form)
Kunahmąątiin.
It is forbidden.
(kunahmaw)-(tii)-(n ending)
kunahmawaaw forbid s.o., s.t. to s.o.
Ndootmąątiin.
It is required.
(ndootmaw)-(tii)-(n ending)
ndootmawaaw vtao require s.t. of s.o.
Note the contraction with vtao stems ending in aw- and the suffix -utii- in the examples above.
Examples from Mahican texts
Ndan psukw paaskuwan mtukwan knahmawąąp.
And only one tree (obv) was forbidden to him. (HA12)
The verb is kunahmawaaw forbid s.t. to s.o. and it is in the absolute “X subject” form with a preterite ending indicating action completed in the past. Note absence of prefix, our first clue to a X subject form and use of a w ending with no plural ending on the preterite indicating a 3rd person sg form. In the context of the phrase, there was mention previously of “mankind” represented by “him” in the phrase snippet above.
No obviative ending is present because absolute vtao forms do not reference the extra object which is the obviative participant in this phrase.
Nii wchuchahkwąą ksiixihtawąąnaawąą.
Their spirits (pl obv) cleansed for them they (pl obv) were. (HA37)
The verb is ksiixihtawaaw cleanse s.t. for s.o. conjugated as an objective X subject form with an plural obviative ending that matches the plural obviative status of the extra object. This behavior, on objective forms using n endings allows verbs to be used alone without an accompanying noun. The proximate party “them” refers to “the believers” who were previously mentioned earlier in the phrase.
Kihkaywąąkan miinąąnaawah.
The kingdom, given to them it is. They are given the kingdom. The kingdom is given to them. (Matt5.10)
The verb is miinaaw give s.t. to s.o. and is conjugated to the 3rd person plural objective form.
Wiinwuθiikw knii=ch kmiinkahmąą=ch. Ask for it and it shall be given you
Pąąpakwŭhiikaakw kutawunamąąkahmąą=ch. Knock it shall be opened for you (Matt7.7)
The phrases above both use m endings indicating absolute mode. This suggests a true meaning along the lines of “Ask for something and something shall be given to you”.
Note the contraction as ukaa is added to the verb stem of the verb tawunamawaaw open s.t. for s.o.
Nu=k θooknupąąntuwąąkan ustah ąąm anakwunamawąąwun.
Well then baptism should not be offered to him. (HA94)
This example is conjugated as a negative form, using an n ending indicating an absolute form.