Mahican Nouns 3 Possessives

The idea of kinship (my mother) or ownership (my chair) is done by a system of modifications using prefixes and suffixes. Possession or kinship conveys information about more than one person or item, and clarifies how they are related to each other. This happens in English also. The words “my car” bring together a person (me) and an item (a car) and relate the two to each other.

Ngúk. My mother.

Possession in its simplest form in Mahican is done by adding a prefix to the beginning of the noun.
For example, adding the prefix (nu-) to the word for mother, (kuk), will change the meaning of the word to “my mother”.

(nu) + (kuk) become one word => (nukuk) which is pronounced as nguk.

Prefixes are added to a stem in a variety of patterns which I call beginning patterns. Prefixes also add a syllable to the word and that can changes the way the syllables of the word are stressed, and these changes persist even if the prefix is dropped due to traditional pronunciation rules. Also, a number of sound laws modify the way some sound clusters are pronounced after adding or deleting a prefix. The softening of k to g after n is an example. 

Kúk. Your mother.
This is formed by adding (ku-) to the noun (kuk)
(ku) + (kuk) become one word => (kukuk) which is pronounced as kuk.

Wkúkan. Her mother.
This is formed by adding (wu-) to the noun (kuk)

Singular third person forms such as this one require adding an ending known as the singular obviative ending. The suffix (-an) helps to distinguish the two third person people involved. In this example, one third person is “her” and the other third person is the mother. The same system applies to any two animate nouns within a sentence. Mahican adds an obviative marker to the 2nd mentioned third person participant of a word or phrase, ensuring that there is no way to confuse the two participants.

Mahican uses obviative markers on nouns, verbs and pronouns whenever there are two third person participants involved. The primary third person participant is referred to as the proximate noun or participant. The second mentioned third person participant is referred to as the obviative noun or participant.

(wu) + (kuk) + (an) become one word => (wukukan) which is written as wkukan.

Additionally, a special possessive suffix (-um) may be added but only certain nouns use this suffix (-um) with no obvious pattern to it, except that noun stems ending in (-an) usually don’t use it.

The use of prefixes and endings to form Mahican possessive nouns, linking a noun to a person, does not require the use of a personal pronoun before the word. These may however optionally be used for extra emphasis.

Personal Pronouns

Pronoun Uses
nuyáh me, my, I
kuyáh you, your
naakŭmah him, her; his, her; he, she
nŭyaanah us, our, we
kŭyaanah us, our, we
kŭyaawah your, you (pl)
naakmąąwąh their, them, they

Nŭyáh ngúk. My mother.
Kŭyáh kúk. Your mother.
Naakŭmah wkúkan. Her or his mother.

These pronouns may be used in a variety of other ways other than use before a possessed noun. They may be used to reinforce a verb subject and may be used alone.

Wąąk nŭyáh. Me too.

Ustah nŭyáh. Not me.

Nahah nŭyáh. That’s me. I am here.

Nŭyáh kiip. I am. 

Kŭyáh kiip ktah! You did go!

Note: 'kiip' functions as a focus marker for the pronoun. (Goddard2008)

 

Paradigms for making a noun possessive:

Inanimate Possessed Nouns:

Singular Possessor of “one of something inanimate”

When someone (me, you, him, her) possesses something inanimate, only a prefix is required to describe the relationship.

Possessor Paradigm
my: nu(····)um
your: ku(····)um
his or her: wu(····)um

Reminder: Only some nouns use (um).

Singular Possessor of “more than one of something inanimate”

When someone (me, you, him, her) possesses more than one inanimate item, a prefix and an inanimate plural ending -an are required to describe the relationship.

Possessor Paradigm
my: nu(····)um-an
your: ku(····)um-an
his or her: ku(····)um-an

Nouns which use (um) insert it BEFORE the plural ending.

Inanimate noun possessive examples:

Ahpapóon. A chair.
Nŭyáh ndahpapóon. My chair.
Nŭyáh ndahpapóonan. My chairs.
Kŭyáh ktahpapóonan.  Your chairs.
Naakmah wtahpapoonan. His or her chairs.
 

Beginning pattern (ah----)
    (nu)-(ah----) =>  (ndah----)
    (ku)-(ah----) =>  (ktah----)
    (wu)-(ah----) => (wtah----) 
    This pattern applies to many vowel initial stems. 

Axíikan. A knife.
Nŭyáh ndaxíikan. My knife.
Kŭyáh ktaxíikanan. Your knives.
Naakmah wtaxíikan. His knife.

Skaasiimiin. A strawberry. 
Nŭyáh nsukaasiimiinum. My strawberry.
Kŭyáh ksukaasiimiinum. Your strawberry. 
Naakmah wsukaasiimiinuman. His or her strawberries.  

Haamut. A shirt.
Nŭyáh ndahaamut. My shirt.
Kŭyáh ktahaamut. Your shirt.
Ktahaamtan. Your shirts.
Wtahaamtan. His shirts.

Beginning pattern (h----)
(nu)-(h----) =>  (ndah----)
(ku)-(h----) =>  (ktah----)
(wu)-(h----) => (wtah----)  

Chaxkwiinootay. A bag.
Noh nah kŭyáh kchaxkwiinóotayum? Is that your bag?  
Niin nah nŭyáh njaxkwiinootáyuman. These are my bags.
Naakmah wchaxkwiinóotayum. His bag.

Beginning pattern (ch----)
(nu)-(ch----) =>  (nj----)
(ku)-(ch----) =>  (kch----)
(wu)-(ch----) => (wch----)

Plural possessor of ‘one of something inanimate’

When a group of people (we, you plural, they) possesses one of something inanimate, a prefix and an ending are used to indicate ownership of the item.

Possessor Paradigm
our (excl) nu(····)um-unah
our (incl) ku(····)um-unah
your: ku(····)um-uwah
their: wu(····)um-uwah

Plural possessor of ‘more than one of something inanimate’

When a group of people (we, you plural, they) possesses more than one of something inanimate, an inanimate plural ending -an is used in addition to the prefix and the group possessive ending. Note that the first ending added (the central ending) marks the primary participants as plural and the second ending (the peripheral ending) marks the inanimate noun as plural. The two endings coalesce together due to sound laws to form a contracted ending.

For example:
-unah + -an = -unąąn
-uwah + -an = -uwąąn

Possessor Paradigm
our (excl) nu(····)um-unąąn
our (incl) ku(····)um-unąąn
your: ku(····)um-uwąąn
their: wu(····)um-uwąąn

Reminder: Only some nouns use the possessive suffix -um.

Ndahpapóonunah. Our chair.
Ndahpapóonunąąn. Our chairs.
Ktahpapóonuwah. Your (pl) chair.
Ktahpapóonuwąąn. Your (pl) chair.
Wtahpapóonuwah. Their chair.
Wtahpapóonuwąąn. Their chairs

Ndaxiikanúnah. Our knife
Ndxiikanúnąąn. Our knives
Ktaxiikanúwah. Your knife
Ktaxiikanúwąąn. Your knives
Wtaxiikanuwah. Their knife
Wtaxiikanuwąąn. Their knives


Pumąąwsuwąąkan. One's life. 
Wpumąąwsuwąąkanuwąąn. Their lives (HA68)

Now let’s see how to possess an animate noun, slightly more complex due to possibilities of obviative markings and ending contractions.

Animate Possessed Nouns:

Singular Possessor of “one of something animate”

When a person (me, you, him, her) has ownership or a kinship relationship with a singular animate noun, only a prefix is required except in phrases which include two third person participants in which case an obviative ending is added. Third person possessed forms of this type therefore always add an obviative ending (singular obviative for a singular possessed noun)-an. First person and second person possessed animate nouns only use an obviative ending if the phrase contains another third person participant who happens to be mentioned first, making him or her the proximate participant. For example, “John greeted my daughter.” This phrase contains two third person participants. “John” is the proximate third person, whereas “my daughter” (she who is my daughter) is the obviative third person participant. If one were to say, “My daughter greeted John,” then “John” would be obviative instead. The following table lists the method for inflecting singular possessed animate nouns for use as non-obviative and as obviative nouns in keeping with this point of grammar.

Possessor Proximate Paradigm Obviative Paradigm
my: nu(····)um nu(····)um-an
your: ku(····)um ku(····)um-an
his or her: —– wu(····)um-an (obviative)

Reminder: Only some nouns use the possessive suffix -um.

Singular possessor of ‘more than one of something animate’

When a person (me, you, him, her) has ownership or a kinship relationship with plural animate noun, a prefix is used to identify the primary person involved, and the animate plural ending -ak is added except for phrases which include two third person participants in which case an obviative ending is added. Third person possessed forms of this type therefore always add an obviative ending (plural obviative for a plural possessed noun)-ah. First person and second person possessed animate nouns only use an obviative ending if the phrase contains another third person participant who happens to be mentioned first, making him or her the proximate participant. For example, “John greeted my daughters.” This phrase contains two third person participants. “John” is the proximate third person, whereas “my daughters” (they who are my daughters) represent multiple obviative third person participants. The plural obviative ending -ah should be added to “my daughters”. If one were to say, “My daughters greeted John,” then “John” would be obviative instead. A singular obviative ending would be added to John, e.g. John-an. The following table lists the method for inflecting plural possessed animate nouns for use as non-obviative and as obviative nouns in keeping with this point of grammar.

Possessor Proximate Paradigm Obviative Paradigm
my: nu(····)um-ak nu(····)um-ah
your: ku(····)um-ak nu(····)um-ah
his or her: —– wu(····)um-ah (pl obviative)

Note that only some nouns use -(um) and where present, it comes BEFORE the plural or obviative ending. Examples of possessed animate nouns with a singular possessor:

Nŭyáh niichąąn. My daughter.
Wunaawąąn niichąąnan. He saw her (obv) my daughter (obv). 
Nŭyáh niichąąnak. My daughters.
Wunaawąą niichąąnah. He saw them (pl obv) my daughters (pl obv). 
Kŭyáh kuniichąąn. Your daughter.
Kŭyáh kuniichąąnak. Your daughters.
Naakmah wuniichąąnan. His daughter.
Naakmah wuniichąąnah. His daughters.
(Note that the Moravian or Western Mahican dialect does not use different obviative forms for sg. and pl. obviative nouns. Moravian Mahican uses (-ah) regardless of the sg and pl. status of an obviative noun.)
Beginning pattern for nouns beginning in pa---- :
(nu)-(pa----) =   (mba----)   
(ku)-(pa----) =   (kpa----)    
(wu)-(pa----) =    (wpa----)

More examples:

Mihtuwkw. A tree.
Numíhtkwum. My tree.
Numíhtkwumak. My trees.

[mihtukw] loses the weak (u) after (-um) is added.
See chapter on pronunciation for more information.

Kumíhtkwum. Your tree.
Kumíhtkwumak. Your trees.
Wumíhtkwuman. His tree.
Wumíhtkwumah. His trees. 

Nóhum. My grandmother.
Nóhmak. My grandmothers.
Kóhum. Your grandmother.
Kóhmak. Your grandmothers.
Óhman. His grandmother.
Óhmah. His grandmothers.

Some nouns are called Dependent Nouns or Obligatory Possessed Nouns because they cannot be used in a non-possessive form. Most body parts and all family kinship words are dependent nouns. Nóhum is an example of a dependent noun. Dependent nouns do not use the (-um) possessive suffix.

Beginning pattern for nouns starting with wu----

(nu)-(wu----) =   (noo----)        
(ku)-(wu----) =   (koo----)
(wu)-(wu----) =   (oo----) 

Note that Schmick's transcription writes the word initial third person prefix 
as /o/ but the same words written by fluent speakers such as Hendrick Aupaumut record this prefix as /wu-/. This writer believes /wu-/ to be the better choice. 


Nih nah kŭyáh kpoosíisum? Is that your cat? 

Nih means 'there' and is often added to phrases implying a location. 

Nih nan=aat=hah mboosíisum.       
That must be my cat.

Beginning pattern (poo----)

(nu)-(poo----) =   (mboo----) 
(ku)-(poo----) =   (kpoo----)
(wu)-(poo----) =   (wpoo----)

Grammar Note Animate nouns always add an obviative suffix for all 3rd person possessives because two people (or animate nouns) are referenced, i.e. the possessor and the possessed. Therefore the possessed noun must take the obviative suffix. (Wkúkan) could be thought of as ‘she who is his or her mother’ making reference to a another distinct 3rd person in the sentence.

Plural possessor of ‘one of something animate’

Plural possession is used when more than one person owns or is related to a person or an animate noun, such as ‘our father’ or ‘their tree’.
When a group (us, you plural, they) has possession or a kinship relationship with another animate noun which is singular, an appropriate prefix and a group suffix are used. Forms which are obviative due to the presence of an afore mentioned animate noun or person add the singular obviative ending -an. All animate third person plural possessed forms use the obviative ending since there are always two third person participants involved.

Possessor Proximate Paradigm Obviative Paradigm
our (excl) nu(····)um-unah nu(····)um-unąąn
our (incl) ku(····)um-unah ku(····)um-unąąn
your: ku(····)um-uwah ku(····)um-uwąąn
their: —– wu(····)um-uwan

Examples of animate noun possessives, plural possessors:

Numìhtkwumúnah. Our tree.
Kumìhtkwumúwah. Your (pl) tree.
Wumihtkwumuwan.  Their tree (obv).

Nohumúnah. Our grandmother.
Kohumúwah. Your (pl) grandmother.
Ohumúwan. Their gradmother.

Plural possessor of ‘more than one of something animate’

When a group (us, you plural, they) has possession or a kinship relationship with a plural animate noun, a prefix and a suffix are used and an animate plural ending -ak is added. Forms which are obviative due to the presence of an afore mentioned animate noun or person and third person plural possessed forms add the plural obviative ending -ah instead of -ak.

Possessor Proximate Paradigm Obviative Paradigm
our (excl.): nu(····)um-unąąk nu(····)um-unąą
our (incl.): ku(····)um-unąąk ku(····)um-unąą
your (pl.): ku(····)um-uwąąk ku(····)um-uwąą
their: —– wu(····)um-uwąą (obviative)

*Early Mohican retained the final (h) on the contracted plural obviative forms (-ąąh )but in later years it dropped leaving a long final vowel that does not undergo shortening.

Note:
The 1st person plural ending originally was -unąąn when followed by a peripheral ending (the plural ending reflecting the possessed noun’s plural status). Stockbridge dialect speakers simply added the peripheral ending to
-unah and shortened it with a contracted form :

plural: nu(····)unąąk instead of nu(····)unąąnak
obv: nu(····)unąąn instead of nu(····)unąąnan
obv pl: nu(····)unąą instead of nu(····)unąąnah
locative: nu(····)unąąk instead of nu(····)unąąnuk (Locative forms will be discussed elsewhere in more detail.)

Similarly, the 2st person pl ending originally was -uwąąw when followed by a peripheral ending but is shortened to -uwah by Stockbridge dialect speakers and contracted with the peripheral ending:

plural: ku(····)uwąąwak contracts to ku(····)uwąąk
obv: ku(····)uwąąwan contracts to ku(····)uwąąn
obv pl: ku(····)uwąąwah contracts to ku(····)uwąą
locative: ku(····)uwąąwuk contracts to ku(····)uwąąk

These details are mentioned here because similar contractions can be found in conjugated verbs, with some differences between the two main dialects of Mahican.

Numìhtkwumúnąąk. Our trees.
Kumìhtkwumúwąąk. Your (pl) trees.
Wumihtkwumuwąą. Their trees (obv)
Wumihtkwumuwąąn. Their tree (obv).


Noohumúnąąk. Our grandmothers.
Koohumúwąąk. Your (pl) grandmothers.
Oohumúwąą. Their grandmothers.

Some nouns add the possessive suffix (-um) differently, because of interactions with the preceding sound clusters.

Takwáxw. Bread. 

Ndákxoom.  My bread.
Ktáxoom.  Your bread .
Wtakxóoman. His bread. (s26 94)
Ndakxoomnah. Our bread. (HA102)
Ktakxoomwah.  Your (pl) bread.
Wtakxoomwąąn. Their bread.

Possession by Proximity

Possession can be also expressed in another way, by joining two nouns together, as adjacent words, without use of possessive prefixes or suffixes. One could call it “possession by proximity.” Inanimate noun possession by proximity

Awaan niin makθúnan?     Whose shoes are those?

Awaan is a pronoun.  It means 'who, whose, someone, or somebody' 

Niin Bobúsh makθúnan. Those are Bobby's shoes.

Awaan niin wsukaasiimiinan? Whose strawberries are those? 

Niin Mary skaasiimiinum. Those are Mary's strawberries. 

Ustah kuyah ksukaasiimiinum. They're not your strawberries.

Animate noun possession by proximity

Nah Jesse aamhąąnum. That is Jesse's spoon.

Nook Bobush aamhąąnumak. Those are Bobby's spoons.

Both Jesse and aamhąąn are animate. Animate possession by proximity seemingly violates a cardinal rule of Algonquian languages in the sense that one could argue that there are two proximate 3rd person nouns here: Jesse and aamhąąn. However the two nouns function as a unit, as if together they form a single combined compound noun, or a double animate noun complex of sorts.

Double Possessives:

Animate dependent nouns can be joined too in this manner, but the dependent noun will use usual 3rd person possessive prefixes and suffixes. Any noun, animate or inanimate, may be in proximity to another noun using 3rd person possessive prefixes and suffixes also. This use redundantly makes it clear that the second noun is possessed by the first.

Mary-wkukan kawiiw. Mary's mother is sleeping.
John-óoxan wunaawkoon. John's father saw him.

Niimanaaw wupaxaanmuman. The man's woman.

Póosiis wkúkan. The cat's mother.

Kúknah áhkuy. Our mother earth.
Wusoowhiikan. A book. 
Noox oosoowhiikan. My father's book.

Koohum wupoosiisman. Your grandmother's cat. 

Wpoosiisum wumiitθuwąąkan. Her cat's food. 

Double obviative possessives:

Since there cannot be two proximates in a sentence or phrase, the two nouns would have to both be obviatives.

Wkukan wupoosiisuman. His mother's cat. (His mother, her cat)

Ooxan wchóoθan. His father's friend.

Triple possessives

Mary wumiiθan wtáhpapoon. Mary's older sister's chair.
Mary ooxan wchooθan. Mary's father's friend.
Nguk wchooθan ooxan. My mother's friend's father.
Kukuna wchóoθan wupoosiisumah. My mother's friend's cats.

Summary Possessive Nouns

Animate Possessive Nouns

Possessor Possessed Quantity = One Possessed Quantity = More than One
my: nu(····)um nu(····)um-ak
your: ku(····)um ku(····)um-ak
his or her: wu(····)um-an (obviative) wu(····)um-ah (obviative)
our (excl) nu(····)um-unah nu(····)um-unąąk
our (incl) ku(····)um-unah ku(····)um-unąąk
your: ku(····)um-uwah ku(····)um-uwąąk
their: wu(····)um-uwąąn wu(····)um-uwąą*

*Early Mohican retained the final (h) in later years it dropped leaving a long final vowel that does not undergo shortening.

Inanimate Possessive Nouns

Possessor Possessed Quantity = One Possessed Quantity = More than One
my: nu(····)um nu(····)um-an
your: ku(····)um ku(····)um-an
his or her: wu(····)um wu(····)um-an
our (excl) nu(····)um-unah nu(····)um-unąąn
our (incl) ku(····)um-unah ku(····)um-unąąn
your: ku(····)um-uwah ku(····)um-uwąąn
their: wu(····)um-uwah wu(····)um-uwąąn

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